It is 2:00 in the afternoon on July 3rd, 1863. The ground is still shaking. For nearly 2 hours, more than 150 Confederate cannons have been firing into Cemetery Ridge. It is the largest artillery bombardment the North American continent has ever heard. The noise is so enormous that people in Pittsburgh, 180 miles away, claim they can hear it.
In the fields behind Seminary Ridge, 12,500 Confederate soldiers are lying flat against the grass waiting. Dirt and shrapnel rain down on them from the Union guns firing back. Some of the men are praying. Some are writing names on slips of paper and pinning them to their jackets so their bodies can be identified afterward.
And then the guns stop. The silence is worse because the silence means it is time. Somewhere in that line, a 46-year-old Brigadier General named Lewis Armistead gets to his feet. He is gray-bearded, quiet-voiced, and has buried two wives. He takes his hat, a black slouch hat, and places it on the tip of his sword and raises it above his head where his men can see it.
What he does not know is that the man commanding the Union troops directly in front of him, the man whose soldiers will try to kill him in the next 40 minutes, was once one of his closest friends. In approximately 50 minutes, more than half of the men standing in this field will be dead, wounded, or captured. 50 minutes.
That is the length of one episode of a television drama. In that span, nearly 6,500 men will become casualties on a 3/4-mile stretch of Pennsylvania farmland. But here is what most people get wrong about Lewis Armistead. The famous story says he died heroically at the stone wall, hand on a Union cannon, cut down in a blaze of glory.
That is not what happened. Armistead was carried to a field hospital. He lingered for two full days. He died at 9:00 in the morning on July 5th. What happened in those two days, what he said, who he asked for, and whether his message ever reached the friend on the other side, is a story almost no one tells.
And that friendship itself, the one between Armistead and Union General Winfield Scott Hancock, the story that has been called one of the great tragedies of the Civil War. The truth is more complicated, more fragile, and more heartbreaking than the legend, because the evidence that they were friends at all rests on almost nothing.
By the end of this video, you will understand exactly what happened during Pickett’s Charge, not the myth, but the minute-by-minute horror of it, and you will know the real story of Lewis Armistead’s death, and the friendship that may or may not have been what we were told.
Now, let me take you back to the summer of 1863, and the road that led to that field. By July 1863, Robert E. Lee had taken his army north, not to defend, to invade. He had crossed the Potomac, and marched 75,000 Confederate soldiers into Pennsylvania. The deepest penetration into Union territory in the war.
Lee believed one decisive victory on northern soil, one battle that broke the Army of the Potomac in front of northern civilians, would shatter the Union’s will to fight. It was the greatest gamble of the war, and Lee was not a man who gambled lightly. He gambled now because he was running out of time. The South was starving.
The naval blockade was tightening like a noose. Every month the war continued, the North’s industrial advantage grew wider. Lee needed to end this. He needed Gettysburg. The two armies collided almost by accident. No one planned to fight at Gettysburg. Confederate soldiers marching toward the town, reportedly looking for a supply of shoes, ran into Union cavalry on the morning of July 1st.
Within hours, both sides were feeding troops into the collision, and by nightfall the geography had chosen the battlefield for them. The Union Army dug in along Cemetery Ridge, a long low spine of high ground running south of town, and the Confederates occupied Seminary Ridge, a parallel line roughly 3/4 of a mile to the west.
Between them lay open, gently rolling farmland, crops, fences, a road, a killing field, though no one called it that yet. On both sides of that field, the men were exhausted. Many of the Confederate soldiers had marched hundreds of miles to reach Pennsylvania. They were lean, sun-darkened, wearing shoes that were falling apart if they had shoes at all.
A significant number were conscripts, boys from the farms and small towns of Virginia and North Carolina who had never been this far from home. The Union soldiers were not much different. Farm boys from New York, Pennsylvania, Maine. Most were in their early 20s. They had dug shallow trenches behind a low stone wall that barely reached their waists, and they waited.
Two armies of young men separated by a wheat field, about to discover what a 3/4 mile walk across open ground actually costs. July 1st and 2nd had already been catastrophic. Two full days of fighting, tens of thousands of casualties, and Lee was not finished. Lee’s plan for the third day was as simple as it was terrifying.
He would mass his artillery, every gun he could bring to bear, and hammer the Union center on Cemetery Ridge until the defenders were broken. Then he would send 12,500 infantry across that open ground in a single massive frontal assault. Enough men to fill a modern sports arena. They would hit the Union line at a point marked by a small cops of oak trees, breach it, and split the Army of the Potomac in two.
On paper, it was bold. On the ground, it was a 3/4 mile walk into the mouths of rifles and cannons with no cover, no surprise, and no fallback. Among the men assigned to lead that walk was Brigadier General Lewis Armistead, commanding a Virginia brigade of roughly 1,400 men. Armistead was 46, old for a field commander, with a gray beard and a voice his men described as quiet but steady.
He had spent his entire adult life in the military, not because it came easily, but because nothing else had worked. Armistead came from a family that had been fighting America’s wars for generations. His father had been a brevet brigadier general in the War of 1812. His uncle, Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead, had commanded the defense of Fort McHenry during the British bombardment of Baltimore in 1814, and the enormous flag that flew over that fort while the bombs fell is the flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write The Star-Spangled Banner. Lewis Armistead grew up in the literal shadow of the national anthem. He had tried West Point, but West Point did not take. He was involved in an altercation. The story goes that he broke a plate over the head of a fellow cadet named Jubal Early and was expelled. He never graduated, never earned the credential, but the army took him anyway, commissioned him directly, and he served for decades.
Florida, Mexico, California, the frontier. The division commander above him was George Pickett. Pickett was 38, vain, perfumed, with long ringlets of hair he curled with care even in the field. He had graduated dead last in his West Point class, 59th out of 59, and was engaged to a woman 20 years younger than him.
History would attach his name to the charge, though Pickett himself commanded from behind the lines and never crossed the field. Stop for a moment and consider the absurdity of the family connection. Lewis Armistead’s uncle defended Fort McHenry. The flag that survived that bombardment became the symbol of the United States.
And now the nephew is about to lead a charge against the United States, against the army that flag represents. That is not just irony. That is the Civil War compressed into a single family. By 1863, Armistead had already endured losses that would have broken most men. His first wife, Cecilia Lee Love, had died in 1850.
His second wife, Cornelia Taliaferro Jameson, died in 1855. He had buried two wives before the first shot of the Civil War was ever fired. His two children had been sent to live with relatives. He was, by the time of Gettysburg, a man whose personal world had been emptied out piece by piece, and the war had taken what little was left, including the friendships that had sustained him through his years on the frontier.
The man commanding the Union troops directly across the field, the second core of the Army of the Potomac, was Major General Winfield Scott Hancock. Hancock was 39, physically imposing, and possessed a calm under fire that had already made him famous. General McClellan himself had called him Hancock the superb. He was the kind of officer who rode upright on horseback while bullets snapped past him, not out of recklessness, but out of the calculated understanding that his men needed to see him unafraid.
He was, by every account, one of the finest combat commanders in the Union Army, and he had once been Lewis Armistead’s friend. How close were they? That is where the story gets complicated. The two men had served together at frontier posts in the 1850s, Fort Tejon in California, assignments in Indian Territory. They knew each other.
They shared meals. Years later, Henry Heth, another officer from those days, would write in his memoirs, “Armistead, Hancock, and I were messmates, and never was a mess happier.” But Heth was writing decades after the fact, polishing memories. The strongest documentary evidence of the friendship is a single letter Armistead wrote to Hancock, and the farewell that took place in Los Angeles in June of 1861.
That farewell is where the legend lives. Los Angeles, June 1861. The war has begun, and the United States Army is tearing itself apart. Officers who have served together for years are choosing sides, some going north, some going south. In a rented house, a group of them gather for a final evening together. Among them are Lewis Armistead and Winfield Scott Hancock.
Hancock is staying with the Union. Armistead is leaving for Virginia. The evening is somber. Someone reportedly sings. Accounts describe Armistead becoming visibly emotional as the night wears on, not the behavior of a casual acquaintance. At some point, Armistead approaches Hancock’s wife, Almira, known as Mira, and hands her a small package of personal belongings.
He asks her to keep them safe. And then he says the words that have echoed through 160 years of Civil War memory. “Mira, you will never know what this has cost me.” Whether this scene played out exactly as later writers described it, whether those were his precise words, historians have debated for generations. The account comes not from a diary written that night, but from recollections assembled years later.
The emotional truth of the moment, however, is beyond dispute. Officers who had shared years of service, of loneliness on remote posts, of meals and laughter, and the slow bonds that form between men far from home, those officers were walking away from each other. And some of them knew they would meet again only as enemies.
Armistead walked out into the Californian night. Two years later, he would be walking across a field in Pennsylvania straight toward the guns of the man he had just said goodbye to. The Union position at Cemetery Ridge was not a fortress. It was a low stone wall, fieldstone, waist-high in places, lower in others, running along the crest of a gentle rise.
Behind it, Union infantry had scraped out shallow rifle pits. The position’s real strength was not the wall itself, but the artillery. Batteries of Napoleon smoothbores and rifled parrot guns positioned to sweep the open ground with canister and shell from multiple angles. Any force crossing that field would be under fire from the front and from the flanks for the entire approach.
The specific target for Pickett’s division was a feature called the angle, a 90-degree turn in the stone where it jutted briefly westward before resuming its north-south line. Just behind the angle stood a small cops of oak trees, visible from Seminary Ridge, which Confederate officers used as a guide point. “Walk toward the trees.”
That was the instruction. Three quarters of a mile of open ground, uphill, into massed fire, toward a clump of oaks. The simplicity of the order concealed the impossibility of the task. Think about what these men were being asked to do. In modern terms, three quarters of a mile is roughly 13 football fields laid end to end.
They would walk that distance, not run, walk, in formation, while cannon and rifle fire struck them from the front and both sides. There was no trench to shelter in, no armored vehicle, no smoke screen, just men in rows walking forward. But, the question that matters most is not whether the charge was doomed, it is why it was ordered at all.
Because the man who should have stopped it, the man Lee trusted most, begged him not to do it, and Lee did it anyway. The morning of July 3rd, 1863, broke hot and hazy over Gettysburg. Temperatures would climb into the high 80s. The air already stank. Two days of fighting had left thousands of dead and wounded scattered across fields and orchards and the streets of the town itself. Flies covered the bodies.
Horses lay bloated in the sun. Into this landscape, Robert E. Lee rode to his command post on Seminary Ridge and confirmed the order he had given the night before. The assault on the Union center would proceed. Lee believed the Union flanks had been tested on July 1st and 2nd and had held. The center, he reasoned, must have been weakened to reinforce those flanks.
A concentrated blow, overwhelming force preceded by the heaviest bombardment he could deliver, would punch through. It was the logic of a man who had won again and again by doing what his opponents did not expect, but this time the man who knew him best told him he was wrong. Lieutenant General James Longstreet, Lee’s senior core commander and most trusted subordinate, had argued against the charge since the previous evening.
Longstreet was a defensive-minded tactician, a man who believed in making the enemy attack you, not the other way around. He looked at the open ground, looked at the Union line, and told Lee what he saw. The words he reportedly used have become some of the most quoted in Civil War history. “General, I have been a soldier all my life.”
“I have been with soldiers engaged in fights by couples, by squads, companies, regiments, divisions, and armies, and should know, as well as anyone, what soldiers can do. It is my opinion that no 15,000 men ever arrayed for battle can take that position.” Lee listened. Then he pointed towards Cemetery Ridge and said, “The enemy is there, and I am going to strike him.”
That was the end of the argument. Longstreet had served with Lee long enough to know when a decision was final, but he could not bring himself to accept it. Here is the moment that should haunt every student of this battle. Longstreet was right. He knew it. Lee probably knew it, too, on some level, but Lee had built his reputation on audacity, on doing the impossible thing and having it work.
Chancellorsville, 2 months earlier, had been exactly that kind of gamble, and it had produced his greatest victory. The problem was that Cemetery Ridge was not Chancellorsville, and the Army of the Potomac in July 1863 was not the demoralized force he had beaten before. Lee was making a decision based on a pattern that had already changed.
While the generals argued, the men who would do the walking waited. They lay in the grass behind Seminary Ridge in whatever shade they could find. And they understood what was coming. Many of them had seen the Union position from the ridgeline. They could see the stone wall. They could see the guns.
Private Erasmus Williams of the 14th Virginia would later recall that the men were cheerful, but not hopeful. Some wrote letters. Some pinned their names to their coats. A few quietly handed personal items, watches, rings, photographs, to men in the units that would not be going forward. These small transactions were their own kind of farewell.
At approximately 7 minutes past 1:00 in the afternoon, the Confederate guns opened fire. 150 cannons, arrayed in a line nearly 2 miles long, fired simultaneously into Cemetery Ridge. The sound was cataclysmic. It was heard in Pittsburgh. The ground shook so violently that men lying flat were bounced off the earth. Smoke rolled across the field in a solid white blanket that blinded the gunners within minutes.
For nearly 2 hours, the bombardment continued, the largest concentration of artillery fire in the Western Hemisphere to that date. The Union guns fired back. For a time, the exchange was mutual and devastating, but then Union Chief of Artillery Henry Hunt made a decision that would prove decisive. Hunt was not just a gunnery officer.
He was one of the most analytically minded soldiers in either army, and he saw what others did not. He ordered his batteries to cease fire. Not because they were out of ammunition, though ammunition was a concern, but because he wanted the Confederates to believe they had silenced the Union guns. He wanted them to think the bombardment had worked.
It was a calculated deception, and it worked perfectly. And there was another problem the Confederates did not know about. The thick smoke blinding their gunners had caused them to overshoot. Shell after shell sailed over the crest of Cemetery Ridge and exploded in the rear areas, hitting supply wagons, ambulances, reserve troops, even a field hospital.
The destruction behind the ridge was terrible, but the front-line Union infantry crouching behind the stone wall, they were largely untouched. The bombardment that was supposed to shatter the Union defenses had missed them almost entirely. This is the detail that makes Pickett’s Charge not just tragic, but structurally doomed.
The entire premise of the assault, that 2 hours of concentrated artillery fire would break the Union line, had failed. The guns had overshot. The wall was intact. The defenders were waiting. And no one on the Confederate side knew. The men about to walk across that field believed they were advancing into wreckage.
They were advancing into a fully operational killing machine. At approximately 2:00 in the afternoon, the Confederate guns fell silent. Officers rode along the lines. The order passed from regiment to regiment. Longstreet, the man who had begged Lee not to do this, could not bring himself to speak the command aloud.
When Pickett asked him directly, “General, shall I advance?” Longstreet could only nod. He later wrote that it was the worst moment of his life. And then, 12,500 men stood up from the grass, dressed their lines with parade ground precision, and began to walk. Not run. Walk. In formation. Shoulder to shoulder, flags flying, officers on horseback.
Across 3/4 of a mile of open ground toward the cops of trees on Cemetery Ridge. The greatest infantry assault in American history had begun. And here is what freezes the blood. They could see it. They could see exactly where they were going and exactly what was waiting for them. This was not a surprise attack into fog. It was a clear afternoon in July.
The stone wall was visible. The guns were visible. And they walked toward it anyway. What happened in the next 50 minutes is not a battle story. It is a horror story. And it begins with a fence. The first minutes were almost beautiful. 12,500 men moving in formation across open ground.
Battle flags snapping in the hot July air. The lines stretching nearly a mile wide. Union soldiers behind the stone wall watched them come and were by multiple accounts momentarily awed. One Union officer later wrote that it was the most magnificent and appalling sight he had ever seen. The ranks were dressed. The step was steady. And the silence after two hours of bombardment was surreal.
The silence lasted perhaps 300 yards. Then the Union guns opened fire. Not the guns on Cemetery Ridge. Not yet. The first batteries to fire were positioned on the flanks. On Little Round Top to the south and Cemetery Hill to the north. They fired obliquely into the advancing columns sending shells skipping and bouncing through the packed formations.
The effect was immediate and devastating. Solid shot carved lanes through the ranks. Shell bursts tore gaps 10 men wide. The men closed ranks and kept walking. When a shell took out a file of soldiers, the men on either side stepped inward to fill the gap as if they were on a drill field. They had been trained to do this.
The training did not account for the fact that closing the gap meant stepping over the men who had just been standing there. Roughly halfway across the field, the advance struck the Emmitsburg Road. The road was lined on both sides by post and rail fences, sturdy, roughly 4 ft high, built for livestock. The men had to stop, climb over, reform on the other side, and continue under direct artillery fire.
The fences created bottlenecks, bunching the soldiers into dense clusters at the exact moment they were most exposed. Men were struck while straddling the rails. Others tore at the fences with their bare hands, ripping rails loose to create gaps. The neat formations that had started the advance began to disintegrate here, at the fences, under a rain of iron.
A fence. That is what started to kill the charge. Not a fortification, not a river. A farmer’s fence, built to keep cows from wandering into the road. And men died on it in clusters because they could not get over it fast enough. Beyond the fences, the ground sloped gradually upward toward the stone wall. And now the Union infantry opened fire.
The range was closing. At 200 yd, rifled muskets were devastating. The Minié ball, a .58 caliber lead slug, did not simply wound. It shattered bone, destroyed limbs, ended lives in a single impact. The men walking uphill into that fire had no cover. Some units began to lose cohesion.
Others pressed forward, heads down as if walking into a rainstorm. As the Confederate infantry climbed the slope toward the stone wall, the Union guns on Cemetery Ridge, the guns that Hunt had ordered to fall silent, roared back to life. They had been waiting. They had conserved their ammunition for this exact moment.
And now they switched from solid shot to canister. Tin cans packed with iron balls that turned each cannon into a giant shotgun. At close range, a single canister round could cut down an entire company front. The guns fired as their crews could load. At the angle itself, directing one of the batteries closest to the stone wall, was a 22-year-old lieutenant named Alonzo Cushing, Battery A, 4th United States Artillery.
Cushing had already been wounded twice during the cannonade. Shrapnel in the shoulder, then a wound to the groin so severe he could barely stand. He ordered his men to prop him against a cannon when a third wound tore into his abdomen. He held himself together with one hand and continued to direct fire with the other. He ordered his remaining guns down to just two, loaded with triple canister, and rolled forward to the stone wall itself.
He was firing point-blank into the Confederate advance when a final round struck him and killed him instantly. He was 22 years old. He would not receive the Medal of Honor for what he did that afternoon for another 151 years. Alonzo Cushing held his own body together with his hands so he could keep killing the men walking toward him.
And the men walking toward him kept walking. This is not courage in the abstract. This is the specific, physical, impossible thing that both sides did on that slope. And it defies every rational instinct a human being possesses. The Confederate advance, which had begun as a mile-wide line, was now funneling inward.
Units that had drifted apart during the crossing were converging on the cops of trees, drawn toward it like the focal point of a lens. The effect was to concentrate more men into a smaller space, exactly where the Union fire was heaviest. The formation that had been designed to spread casualties was now compressing them.
On the left of the advance, the North Carolina brigades under Pettigrew and Trimble were being torn apart by flanking fire. These units, many of them already battered from the fighting on July 1st, began to waver. Some broke. Some kept going. The 26th North Carolina, which had already suffered over 70% casualties 2 days earlier, walked into the fire again.
They had started the Battle of Gettysburg with roughly 800 men. By the end of July 3rd, they would have fewer than 100. The survivors who made it past the canister, past the rifle fire, past the fences and the slope, could now see individual faces behind the stone wall. They were close enough to hear Union officers shouting commands.
The cops of trees was right there. And among the men still pushing forward, visible above the smoke and the chaos, was Lewis Armistead. Armistead placed his black hat on the tip of his sword and raised it above his head. It was a signal. “Follow me,” but it was also a target, and he knew it. The man too wild for West Point, the nephew of the officer whose flag inspired the anthem now charging against it.
The widower who had buried two wives and wept saying goodbye to his closest friends on a California evening 2 years before, that man was now walking into the hottest fire on the continent holding his hat in the air. He shouted, “Come on, boys. Give them the cold steel. Who will follow me?” Roughly 150 to 300 Confederate soldiers, accounts vary, followed Armistead over the stone wall at the angle.
They were inside the Union line. For a few minutes, perhaps five, perhaps less, they fought hand-to-hand among the Union cannons. This was the deepest penetration of the charge. This was the moment that later generations would call the high water mark of the Confederacy, the farthest north that a Confederate force ever advanced in battle.
Armistead, still holding the hat aloft, reached a Union cannon, one of Cushing’s guns, now silent, and placed his hand on the barrel. And somewhere behind this section of the Union line, less than 100 yd away, Winfield Scott Hancock sat on his horse directing the defense. The man Armistead once called friend, he was right there.
The two former messmates were closer in that moment than they had been in 2 years. And between them was nothing but gunfire and men dying on their feet. Then Hancock was hit. A bullet struck his saddle driving a bent nail and wood fragments deep into his thigh. It was an agonizing wound. His aides urged him to leave the field. He refused.
He would not leave until the charge was broken. Both of them on the same quarter acre of ground, one breaching the wall, one defending it, one about to fall, one refusing to leave. If you had written this scene in a novel, your editor would have told you it was too dramatic. But it happened. It actually happened. The breakthrough lasted minutes.
Union reserves, fresh regiments from the flanks, were already rushing to seal the breach. The Confederates inside the wall were outnumbered and surrounded. Armistead was hit. The exact nature of his wound has been debated. Some accounts say it was a bullet to the arm, others to the leg, possibly both. What is certain is that he went down near the cannons, his sword and hat falling with him.
The men who had followed him over the wall were shot down or captured within minutes. The breach was sealed. Pickett’s charge was over. The 3/4 mile stretch between Seminary Ridge and the stone wall was carpeted with men, dead, dying, crawling, calling out. The wounded lay in the July heat with no shade and no water.
Some would lie there for more than a day before help reached them. The smell of blood and gunpowder and torn earth was so thick that men on both sides said it had a physical weight, like breathing through wet cloth. The survivors stumbled back across the field. There was no organized retreat, just men walking, running, limping back the way they had come through the same fire that had met them on the way in.
Some carried wounded comrades. Some walked alone, blank-faced, deafened. The colors of shattered regiments dragged in the dust. Union soldiers behind the wall, many of them, stopped firing, not out of mercy, out of shock. A few called out for the retreating men to come back and surrender rather than risk the walk back.
Of the roughly 12,500 men who had stepped off from Seminary Ridge, more than 6,500 were killed, wounded, or captured. Over 50%. Some individual regiments suffered far worse. The 1st Virginia lost nearly 90% of its men. Armistead’s own brigade of approximately 1,400 suffered around 950 casualties, 68% seven out of every 10 men. Every single field officer in the brigade had been killed or wounded.
The brigade as a fighting unit had ceased to exist. George Pickett, whose name would be forever attached to the charge, had watched it all from behind the lines. He had not crossed the field. When the survivors staggered back to Seminary Ridge, they found Lee waiting for them. Lee rode among them. He was calm. He reached down from his horse and touched the shoulders of wounded men.
And he said the words that even his enemies would later quote with respect, “It is all my fault. It is I who have lost this fight, and you must help me out of it the best way you can.” Then he turned to Pickett and ordered him to rally his division for a possible counterattack. Pickett looked at him and said five words that carried the weight of everything that had just happened.
“General Lee, I have no division.” Lewis Armistead did not die at the stone wall. That is the myth. The reality is quieter and worse. After he fell near the Union cannons, he was found by Union soldiers, wounded, conscious, and no longer fighting. He was carried behind the Union lines to a field hospital established at a farmhouse.
The field hospitals of Gettysburg were not hospitals in any recognizable sense. They were farmhouses, barns, churches, and open fields where surgeons operated on barn doors laid across saw horses. By July 3rd, these facilities were overwhelmed beyond comprehension. Thousands of wounded from both sides were lying in rows on the ground waiting for treatment that might never come.
The primary surgical tool was the bone saw. Amputation was the standard procedure for any serious limb wound, and piles of severed limbs accumulated outside the operating areas. Chloroform and ether were available but running short. Many men endured the saw fully conscious. The sounds coming from those buildings were sounds that the men who heard them carried for the rest of their lives.
Armistead was taken to the George Spangler farm serving as an 11th Corps field hospital behind Cemetery Ridge. He was among hundreds of wounded men, Union and Confederate side by side. His wounds, at least one gunshot, possibly two, were serious but not immediately fatal. He could speak. He was lucid. And what he said has become one of the most debated utterances of the entire war.
Union Captain Henry Bingham, a staff officer serving under Hancock, came to Armistead’s side, whether by chance or by design is unclear. Armistead identified himself, and then he said the words that would be quoted for the next century and a half, “Say to General Hancock for me that I have done him and done you all an injustice.”
What did he mean? Was he apologizing for the war? For fighting against his old friend? For some specific personal wrong? For choosing the Confederacy? No one knows. Armistead did not elaborate. The words hang in history without explanation, and every generation has filled them with its own interpretation. “I have done him and done you all an injustice.” That sentence could m
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