The world has heard a thousand stories of the transatlantic slave trade. Of how strange men with skin-like milk rampaged the rich foliage of Africa’s lands and took captive its inhabitants. Of how families were torn apart and entire societies were decimated. Of how millions were shackled, packed into ships like cargo, and carried across treacherous waters to a world where they would never again be free.
Yet, long before the first Europeans set foot on African soil, another trade had already been in motion. A trade that would last for over a thousand years from the 7th to 20th century. The Arab slave trade. Also known as the transaharan and Indian Ocean slave trade, the Arab slave trade remains one of the most overlooked and least discussed chapters of African history. Despite its extremely brutal and devastating impact on the continent. In this video, we finally tell its forgotten story. A history of stolen lives, lost homelands, and enduring pain. We are bringing to you the dark truths of the unspeakable evils meated on blacks by the Arabs during the slave era where Arabs would raid, capture, and enslave even fellow Arabs and Muslims just because they had black skin. How Arabs justified these deeds using verses from their holy scripture and how the slave trade still exists today.
Now, let’s get back on track. The slave trade generated incredible wealth for the European and American nations that participated in it at the expense of millions of human lives. An estimated 1.8 million Africans perished during the middle passage. The countries that enslaved the highest number of Africans from the most to the least were Portugal, Britain, France, the Netherlands, Spain, the United States, and Denmark, shipping a total of 12.5 million enslaved Africans to toil in what was considered the new world. Long before the Europeans began exploiting Africans in the transatlantic slave trade, the roots of the slave trade began in Eastern Africa. Arabs played a crucial role in the slave carrying trade, brutally enslaving Africans and selling them across extensive trade networks, providing slaves for their domestic use and to the classical world.
Records of slave trading and transportation in the Sahara date as far back as the 3rd millennium BC during the reign of the Egyptian king Nepheru who crossed the fourth cataract of the Nile into what is today modern Sudan to capture slaves and send them north. These raids for prisoners of war who subsequently became slaves were a regular occurrence in the ancient Nile Valley and Africa. During times of conquest and after winning battles, the ancient Nubians were taken as slaves by the ancient Egyptians. The Garamantes relied heavily on slave labor from subsaharan Africa. They use slaves in their own communities to construct and maintain underground irrigation systems known to Berbers as Fogara. Ancient Greek historian Heroditus recorded in the fifth century BC that the Garamantes enslaved caved dwelling Ethiopians known as Trogoditee chasing them with chariots.
In the early Roman Empire, the city of Lepsis established a slave market to buy and sell slaves from the Bantto African interior. In the fifth century AD, Roman Carthage was trading in black slaves brought across the Sahara. The empire imposed customs tax on the trade of slaves. Black slaves seem to have been valued as household slaves for their exotic appearance. Some historians argue that the scale of slave trade in this period may have been higher than medieval times due to the high demand for slaves in the Roman Empire. However, the slave trade through the Sahara in antiquity may have been small and rare, as Saharan trade didn’t reach large dimensions until the Arabs and Berbers introduced large numbers of camels into the desert.
Paul Lovejoy estimates that at some point around 6 million black slaves were transported across the Sahara between the years 650 AD and 1500 AD. The transaharan slave trade established in antiquity continued during the middle ages. Following the early 8th century conquest of North Africa, Arabs, Berbers and other ethnic groups ventured into subsaharan Africa first along the Nile Valley towards Nubia and also across the Sahara towards West Africa. They were interested in the transaharan trade, especially in slaves, as there was a constant demand for slaves in the eastern Arab nations and Constantinople. The Muslim slave traders distinguished themselves from the peoples on the other side of the Sahara, referring to these African populations as Zange or Sudan, meaning black.
Arabs would routinely acquire slaves through violent raiding, followed by capturing them and sending them on dangerous forced marches across the Sahara to slave markets where they would be treated as cattle, personal property that can be bought and sold. In North Africa, the main slave markets were in Morocco, Alers, Tripoli, and Cairo. Sales were held in public places such as Souks. In central Africa during the 16th and 17th centuries, slave traders continued to raid the region as part of the expansion of the Saharan and Nile River slave routes. It is estimated that in the 17th and 18th centuries, 1.4 million slaves were forced to make the trek through the Sahara.
Captives were enslaved and shipped to the Mediterranean coast, Europe, Arabia, the Western Hemisphere, or to the slave ports, and factories along the West and North Africa coasts, or south along the Ubankqu and Congo rivers. 1.2 million slaves are estimated to have been sent through the Sahara in the 19th century. In the 1830s, a period when slave trade flourished, Gdamis was handling 2,500 slaves a year. Even though the slave trade was officially abolished in Tripoli by the Ferman of 1857, this law was never enforced and continued in practice at least until the 1890s. In Tripoli, GF Lion recorded that from 4,000 to 5,000 slaves were processed annually with raids to areas like KMBBu providing sources of captives.
As a witness to the behavior of the slave dealers, Lion described their behavior in Libya:
“None of the owners were ever without their whips, which were in constant use. No slave dares to be ill or unable to walk. But when the poor sufferer dies, the master suspects there must have been something wrong inside and regrets not having liberally applied the usual remedy of burning the belly with a red hot iron, thus reconciling to themselves their cruel treatment of these unfortunate creatures.”
Other 19th century European explorers recorded their perilous experiences traveling through the Saharan desert alongside slave caravans. The explorer Gustav Noctagal reported finding numerous bones at desert springs that had run dry. Noctagal estimated that for every one slave that successfully arrived at the market, three or four had either died or escaped. Cold could also kill in the desert as the explorer Hinrich Bar relayed a story that the vizier of Borneu had lost 40 slaves in a single night in Libya. A British account described 100 skeletons. By 1858, the British Council in Tripoli had recorded that more than 66% of the value shipped across the Sahara was made up by slaves. The British Council in Benghazi wrote in 1875 that the slave trade had reached an enormous scale and that the slaves who were sold in Alexandria and Constantinople had quadrupled in price.
This trade, he wrote, was encouraged by the local government. By the mid-9th century, it is possible that nearly 10,000 slaves were being transported to North Africa yearly. The Muslim historian Ahmad Iban Khaled Anasiri bemoaned the unlimited enslavement of blacks in 19th century North Africa where men trafficked them like beasts or worse and where the majority of slaves were Muslims who should have been exempt from slavery because of their religious status. Slaves were marched in shackles from across the Sahara via the transaharan slave trade to the Nile while dying from exposure and swollen feet. The Arabs raided subsaharan Africa for 13 centuries without interruption. Most of the millions of men they deported have disappeared as a result of inhumane treatment. This painful page in the history of black people has apparently not been completely turned.
Scholars have referred to it as a veiled genocide, a term reflecting the extreme humiliation and near-death experiences endured by the enslaved from their capture in slave markets to their forced labor abroad and the harrowing journeys in between. Aside from raiding, slaves could also be obtained by purchasing them from local black rulers. The 9th century Arab historian Yakubi states:
“They, the Arabs, export black slaves belonging to the Mea, Zagawa, Marua, and other black races who are near to them and whom they capture. I hear that the black kings sell blacks without pretext and without war.”
Indeed, few African rulers would resist the slave trade, while many chiefs would become middlemen in the trafficking, rounding up members of nearby villages to be sold to visiting merchants. The 12th century Arab geographer Alidrici noted that subsaharan Africans would also participate in slave raiding, stating that the people of Lemlam are perpetually being invaded by their neighbors who take them as slaves and carry them off to their own lands to sell them by the dozens to the merchants.
Every year great numbers of them are sent off to the western Mghreb. Alidrici would also describe the different methods Muslim merchants would use to enslave blacks, recording that some would steal the children of the Zange using dates, lure them with dates, and lead them from place to place until they seize them, take them out of the country, and transport them to their own countries.
In 1353, the Berber explorer Iben Batuta would record accompanying a trade caravan to Morocco, which carried 600 black female slaves who were to be used as domestic servants and concubines. When Batuda visited the ancient African kingdom of Mali, he recounted that the local inhabitants vied with each other in the number of slaves and servants they had and was himself given a slave boy as a hospitality gift.
The routes taken by slave caravans transporting slaves depended on their destination. Slaves headed to Egypt would be carried by boat down the Nile and slaves headed to Arabia would be sent to ports on the Red Sea such as Swakin and Assab. Slaves headed to North Africa would have to take the Saharan trade routes which had been in use since around 1,000 BC. These include routes such as the ones from Tripoli, Gadamese, Gat Hoger, Gao connecting modern-day Libya to Nigeria, the Tripoli, Fezan, Borneo route connecting Libya to areas of what are today Chad, Niger, and Cameroon, and the east-west route connecting Egypt to Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. Kanm Boru Zawila was another route to North Africa as the Kanm Borneu Empire in the eastern part of Niger was an active part of the transaharan slave trade for centuries and the trade formed the basis of the empire’s prosperity. A significant number of studies have been devoted to the transatlantic slave trade. But paradoxically the issue of the eastern and transaharan slave trade organized by the Arabs remains unknown. It even seems deliberately ignored and considered a taboo subject. Yet, the Arab slave trade, a major component of African history, lasted more than 13 centuries.
It began in the early 7th century and continued in one form or another until the 1960s. In Moritania, slavery was officially outlawed only in August 2007. The deportation of Africans to the lands of Islam was structured around two main roads: the maritime traffic between the coast of East Africa and those of the Middle East on the one hand and the transaharan caravan traffic on the other.
In the eastern part of the continent, Arab raids affected an area comprising the Horn of Africa, East Africa, and the Great Lakes region. Slaves captured during bloody expeditions were then transported by sea from enclaves situated on the eastern coast of the continent between present-day Somalia and Mosambique to the shores of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Zanzibar would serve for centuries as a hub for this traffic. Enterprising Arab merchants and middlemen would gather in Zanzibar to acquire raw materials such as cloves and ivory. They would then purchase enslaved Africans who were forced to carry these goods and labor on plantations abroad. Slaves from as far as Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia were brought to the Zanzibar market and shipped across the Indian Ocean to the Persian Gulf and Arabian Peninsula where they were forced to work in places like Oman, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq. The slave trade created immense wealth for East Africans, Europeans, and Arabs at the expense of human freedom. Although slavery existed in some form from the ancient times onwards, what makes this trade significant is its longevity and extent. Arabs practiced slavery before the advent of Islam in the 7th century. But Islam spread into North Africa in the seventh and 8th centuries changed the dynamics of servitude and slavery in the western Sudan across the desert and later in the ancient kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhai. By the 9th century, Arabs entered the East African coast and the citystates established along the coast. From the two areas, some African slaves, either through kidnapping or purchase as slaves, made their way into the Middle East, the Mediterranean world, and the Indian Ocean. The amount of people enslaved by the East African slave trade is difficult to determine since the trade lasted over 1,300 years.
Some estimates put the number of enslaved Africans around 12 million, while others estimate the number to be as high as 18 million. It was in fact beyond brutal and unending. The Arab slave trade was characterized by appalling violence, castration and rape. The men were systematically castrated to prevent them from reproducing and becoming a stock. This inhumane practice resulted in a high death rate. Six out of 10 people who were mutilated died from their wounds in castration centers. For centuries, the Arab slave trade persisted largely unchecked. It was only in the 19th century when European abolitionists like David Livingstone exposed its horrors that the world took notice.
Livingston’s reports detailed the grim reality. Thousands of Africans being chained together, forced on death marches, and sold in bustling slave markets from the Swahili coast to the Middle East. In one of the letters he sent home in 1870, David Livingstone details his experience:
“In less than I take to talk about it, these unfortunate creatures, 84 of them, wended their way into the village where we were. Some of them, the eldest, were women from 20 to 22 years of age, and there were youths from 18 to 19, but the large majority was made up of boys and girls from 7 years to 14 or 15 years of age. A more terrible scene than these men, women, and children. I do not think I ever came across. To say that they were emaciated would not give you an idea of what human beings can undergo under certain circumstances. Each of them had his neck in a large forked stick weighing from 30 to 40 lb and 5 or 6 feet long, cut with a fork at the end of it, where the branches of a tree spread out. The women were tethered with bark thongs, which are of all things the most cruel to be tied with. Of course, they are soft and supple when first stripped off the trees, but a few hours in the sun make them about as hard as the iron round packing cases. The little children were fastened by thongs to their mothers. As we passed along the path which these slaves had traveled, I was shown a spot in the bushes where a poor woman the day before, unable to keep on the march, and likely to hinder it, was cut down by the axe of one of these slave drivers. We went on further and were shown a place where a child lay. It had been recently born, and its mother was unable to carry it from dabbility and exhaustion. So the slave trader had taken this little infant by its feet and dashed its brains out against one of the trees and thrown it in there.”
This crisis, the Europeans, major players in the African slave trade themselves, began attempting to abolish slave trade. In 1865, the United Nations officially put an end to it with the help of many revolts, internal pressure, and trade disruptions. Yet the Arab slave trade remained deeply entrenched, surviving well into the 20th century. In West Africa, the Arab slave trade encompassed a vast region from the Niger Valley to the Gulf of Guinea. This traffic followed the Trans-Saharan roads. The crossing could last up to 3 months with a high mortality rate due to the dire conditions of the trip. Here is the testimony of the German explorer Gustav Noctagal:
“The poor children of the black countries seem to meet death here at the last stage of a long, hopeless and painful journey. The long journey accomplished with insufficient food and scarce water. The contrast between the rich natural resources and the humid atmosphere of their homeland and the dry and anemic air of the desert. The fatigue and the privations imposed by their masters and by the circumstances in which they find themselves. All this has gradually ruined their young strengths. The memory of their homeland that has disappeared along the way. Their fear of an unknown future. The endless journey under the blows, hunger, thirst, and deadly exhaustion have paralyzed their last faculties of resistance. If these poor creatures lack strength to get up and walk again, they are simply abandoned and their minds slowly fade under the destructive effect of the rays of the sun, hunger, and thirst.”
The Arab slave trade also targeted African women and girls who were captured and deported for use as sex slaves. As opposed to the transatlantic slave trade, a particularly striking trademark of the Arab slave trade was its preference for women and girls in thestead of men. Hence, while other regions sought to acquire male slaves for intensive labor purposes, the Arabs were primarily interested in women who could serve as concubines, sexual slaves in harams, and domestic slaves. The demand for the female sex was so high that Arab slave dealers would double their prices. This also meant more female slaves were captured with the estimated ratio of captives being three women to one man. The male slaves, on the other hand, were often castrated into Unix, a process which had a less than 10% survival rate. This was done to prevent them from reproducing in case they became intimate with female slaves. Men and boys were subjected to castration, a brutal procedure that resulted in the deaths of many during the process. Those who survived would be sent to guard the harams or sent into the fields as farm laborers or miners.
Unix, who were around seven times more expensive than non-castrated males, could be used as haram guards, administrators, tutor, secretaries, commercial agents, and even concubines. Due to stricters within Islamic law, slaves would not usually be castrated within Muslim territory and therefore would be castrated before being sent across the Sahara. Sometimes slaves were castrated after purchase in North African slave markets. The castration of black male slaves in the most inhumane manner altered an entire generation as these men could not reproduce, said Liberty Mukcomo, a lecturer at the University of Nairobi Institute of Diplomacy and International Studies. The Arab masters sired children with the black female slaves. This devastation by the men saw those who survived committing suicide. This development explains the modern black Arabs who are still trapped by history. Conditions within the mining industry were notoriously harsh, especially the salt mines of Basra, where tens of thousands of black slaves toiled in extremely miserable conditions, living on insufficient amounts of food.
Yakubi records that both male and female slaves were employed in the copper mines of upper Egypt. The Carmatian Republic of Eastern Arabia is said to have employed 30,000 black slaves to perform all difficult labor. Some black slaves served in the military forces of North Africa. For example, the Zerid dynasty used black slaves imported from Sudan via Zawila. In some instances, Christians in Africa would acquies to Muslims demands that they be provided with slaves. In 641 AD during the treaty known as the backed was signed establishing an agreement between the Nubian Christian state of Mccura and the new Muslim rulers of Egypt in which the Nubians agreed to give Muslim traders more privileges of trade in addition to sending 442 slaves every year to Cairo as tribute. This treaty remained intact for 600 years all while the slave trade within Nubia continued unimpeded. What made the Arab slave trade particularly brutal and painful was the degree and intensity with which it disrupted the entire social, reproductive, and economic lives of black people, leaving a deep and lasting impact on their communities.
Over this period, over 10 million men, women, and children were trafficked through the Sahara Desert and over the Indian Ocean to the Arab world. These journeys were usually so brutal that skeletons were described as marking the trail these slave caravans trudged. Typically, the journey from Africa to the Mediterranean, the home of the Arabs, took months through the desert, which meant slaves would often suffer from exhaustion, extreme heat, and lack of water, which was made worse by their physically bound conditions. Consequently, many slaves succumb to hunger, disease, or thirst along the way, with estimates showing that about 50% of them never made it to the Mediterranean. According to the work of some historians, the Arab slave trade has affected more than 17 million people. In the Saharan region alone, more than 9 million African captives were deported and 2 million died on the roads. This despicable phenomenon was legitimized by Islam as Christianity would later condone the transatlantic slave trade. The Arab slave trade did as well promote the development of racialist and essentialist theories that view blacks as inferior by nature. In many Arab countries, this racism still exists. For example, the same words are used to describe Africans, blacks, and slaves.
For example, the Tunisian Arab historian Iban Caldun from 1332 to 1406 wrote that the only peoples to accept slavery are the Negroes because of their lower degree of humanity, their place being closer to the animal stage. The Algerian Arab theologian Ahmed Alwanesi from between 1430 and 1431 to 158. I have been asked about slaves from the land of Abiscinia who profess monotheism and accept the rules of the holy law. Is it legal or not to buy and sell them? If their conversion to Islam comes after the establishment of a property right on these slaves, then Islam does not demand liberation because slavery was caused by unbelief. The state of servitude persists after the disappearance of unbelief because of its existence in the past.
Offered legal and religious recommendations. Religion has always been central in any rationalization of historic slavery and of the slave trade. Firm legal and social foundations rationalized the Arab slave trade. Muslim scholars viewed slavery as a divinely ordained human condition. Man was created to enjoy freedom but for security reasons had to satisfy two conditions: becoming a Muslim or coming under the protection of the Muslim territory. This can be found in Sane 1976 page 80. The protection of the Muslim territory could be attained only by conversion to Islam. It says those who failed to do so forfeited the enjoyment of the initial offer of freedom for mankind and this was a justification for their enslavement.
The writings of Ahmad Baba in response to an inquiry from Tuat about the enslavement of other Muslims made this point clearer. Ahmad Baba was a Songhai scholar who was taken prisoner in Morocco following the 1571 Moroccan invasion of Shanghai. He expressed the difficulty in differentiating Muslim from non-Muslim war captives and made three determinations. One, an African who was previously Muslim must not be enslaved. For the reason for enslavement is unbelief. The curse of Ham, which seemed to have emerged from the need to rationalize the subjugation of Canaan, was often used as a justification for slavery and the slave trade. But the Arabs and the Muslim world used unbelief as their justification. In Mirage Al-Suud, in other words, the latter of ascent, Ahmad Baba contested the curse of Ham and referring to it as inauthentic, argued in favor of the Quranic injunction of unbelief as a cause of enslavement. The use of the curse of Ham coincides with the 7th century Arab incursion into North Africa and the influx of blacks into the Arab world. This narrative will later be subjected to an Islamic interpretative lens as a justification for the enslavement of Africans under Muslim control. Two, a non-Muslim who persists in his or her unbelief was liable to enslavement irrespective of the curse of Ham. This refers to those who converted to Islam and for whatever reason return to the situation of unbelief. Three, any war captive who converts to Islam upon capture can continue as a slave. There are several interpretations of Ahmad Baba’s treatise on slavery, but it must be made clear that he was primarily concerned with original Muslims, that is those who were free Muslims before capture. These were forbidden as slaves. However, as time went on in the Muslim culture of the Middle Ages, blackness had become increasingly identified with slavery.
By this time, the biblical story of the curse of Ham by Noah, which they claimed had turned his skin to black and doomed his descendants to slavery, had taken a different toe with Muslim slave traders who had used this as a pretext to enslave blacks, including black Muslims. In the late 14th century, a black king of Borneu wrote a letter to the Sultan of Egypt complaining of the continual slave raids perpetrated by Arab tribesmen which were devastating his lands and resulting in the mass enslavement of the black Muslim population of the region. In Alandaloo, the area of medieval Iberia under Islamic control, black Muslims could be legally held as slaves in slavery in Alandaloo. This all occurred despite the orthodox Muslim jurist position that no Muslim regardless of race could be enslaved. Even as late as the 19th century, many of the common people in Islamic society still believed that enslavement based on skin color rather than based on religion was approved by the religious laws of Islam.
The Arab slave trade had a tragic impact on the evolution of African societies. Some areas were completely devastated and depopulated. Welsh explorer Henry Morton Stanley 1841 to 1904 was a horrified witness of this traffic. He wrote that after the depradations of the Arab traffickers, the black blood flows toward the north. The equator smells corpses. When they arrived at destinations, the captives were sold in the slave markets of Cairo, Baghdad, Istanbul, Mecca, and other centers. These slaves played various roles in the economy of the Muslim world. They were used as servants, haram keepers, laborers in fields, mines, and hydraulic yards and as cannon fodder in armies.
Ill treatment sometimes led slaves to rebellion. The revolt of the Zange, for example, is one rebellion that lasted for as long as 15 years. In this gloomy tale, tens of thousands of slaves from the Great Lakes known as the Xange rose in a brutal 15-year struggle against their Arab oppressors. It was one of the most ferocious slave revolts in history. And though ultimately crushed, it left a mark so deep that chronicers of the time described it as a catastrophe unlike any other. Led by Ali bin Muhammad, a man who exploited their suffering and promised freedom, the Z torched plantations, slaughtered slave owners, and seized Basra, one of the most important cities in the Abbassad caliphate.
They built their own stronghold, Al-Muttara, and held their ground for 15 years, defying wave after wave of Abassad attacks. The rebellion pushed the empire to the brink. Entire towns were destroyed, trade routes collapsed, and thousands perished in the chaos. But in the end, the Abbassads retaliated with overwhelming force. After a prolonged siege, Al-Mtara fell. The rebels were annihilated, their leaders executed, and their movement erased from history, except as a grim reminder of how violently the oppressed would resist when pushed beyond their limits. They had been defeated in 883. From these accounts, it is evident that the Arab slave trade not only reshaped Africa during its brutal heyday, but also left a legacy that continues to affect millions today.
The detailed narrative, from the early trade in Zanzibar to the staggering human toll endured on long, treacherous roots reveals how deeply entrenched systems of exploitation and cultural erasure took root. Today, descendants of those enslaved under this system still grapple with the echoes of a past marked by economic degradation, social fragmentation, and enduring racial hierarchies. While formal abolition came in the 20th century, modern manifestations ranging from persistent racial discrimination in Iraq and Sudan to the grim reality of slave markets in Moritania and Libya demonstrate that the shadow of this history looms large. By shedding light on this long-forgotten chapter, we not only honor the memory of the countless lives shattered by the trade, but also confront the systemic issues that persist today.
Adolf Viser wrote in an article published in 1911 that it has been said that slave traffic is still going on on the Benghazi Wadai route. But it is difficult to test the truth of such an assertion as in any case the traffic is carried on secretly at Kufra. The Egyptian traveler Ahmed Hassanine Bay found out in 1916 that he could buy a girl slave for 5 sterling. While in 1923 he found that the price had risen to 30 to 40 sterling. Another traveler, the Danish convert to Islam canude Hombo, crossed the Italian Libyan desert in 1930 and was told that slavery is still practiced in Kufra and that he could buy a slave girl for 30 sterling at the Thursday slave market.
According to James Richardson’s testimony, when he visited Gdames, most slaves were from Borneo. According to Ry Bader, based on estimates of the Trans-Saharan trade, between 1700 and 1880, Tunisia received 100,000 black slaves, compared to only 65,000 entering Algeria, 400,000 in Libya, 515,000 in Morocco, and 800,000 in Egypt.
The United Nations has made March 23rd the International Day of Remembrance of the victims of slavery and the transatlantic slave trade, and UNESCO has made August 23rd the international day for the remembrance of the slave trade and its abolition. When will there be an international day to commemorate the victims of the Arab Muslim slave trade? When will an international research program address this subject? When will a project be implemented to identify, restore, and publicize the sites and monuments linked to this Arab trade like the existing projects concerning the transatlantic trade? When will educational material be produced and cultural and artistic programs conducted to raise awareness of this criminal activity? When will a museum on the Arab Muslim slave trade be established? Recognizing this dark legacy is essential if we are to build a future defined by justice and true reconciliation, ensuring that the scars of the past inform efforts to create a mor
