In the chaos following the Boston Mass killing, Crispus Attucks’s lifeless body lay on the ground, his sacrifice fueling the flames of revolution. But amidst the outrage and grief, a sinister plot unfolded. A doctor driven by morbid curiosity and greed secretly collected Attucks’s body, taking a piece of his skin without consent or respect.
“The doctor, John Warren, saw an opportunity to profit from the martyr’s fame,” the narrator explained. “He tanned the skin and sold it to a bookbinder who crafted a small notebook from the gruesome material. Warren’s plan was to pedal the notebook as a morbid souvenir, capitalizing on Attucks’s legendary status.”
The notebook’s inscription, “Made of tanned skin of the Negro whose execution caused the War of Independence,” was a cynical marketing ploy meant to entice buyers with its association with the American Revolution. Warren cared little for the symbolic significance; his goal was to line his pockets with gold. Attucks’s skin, once a part of a vibrant living man, was now a commodity, reduced to a mere curiosity for the morbidly fascinated. The notebook became a dark symbol of exploitation, a stark contrast to the heroism and sacrifice that Attucks embodied. Today, the notebook resides in the Wellcome Collection in London, a haunting reminder of the callous disregard for human life and dignity that can accompany even the most noble causes.
In today’s video segment, sorrowful as it is, we are going to delve into the most dark and disturbing chapter of human history. A story of exploitation, cruelty, and the commodification of the bodies of innocent Blacks who were stolen from their continent and shipped aboard the Atlantic to a foreign land—terribly tortured, enslaved, and, as though that were not enough, whose bodies were, to the very extreme utmost degradation, used for the leathers of shoes, bags, wallets, furniture, wristwatches, and so on and so forth. We will explore the history of black leather, the people who were affected by it, and the lasting impact it has had on the lives of Black people today.
Imagine ever learning that the skin of certain humans was at a time harvested like animal hide, processed into leather, and turned into everyday goods. This is the dark reality of the transatlantic slave trade, where enslaved Africans were subjected to unimaginable cruelty and exploitation. In the early 19th century, a disturbing practice emerged in the transatlantic slave trade where the skins of enslaved Africans were harvested and treated like animal hide to create leather goods. The use of Black people’s skin for leather books, furniture, and other materialistic things has been in constant existence since the early years of the 1800s. It was a disturbing and well-documented historical practice. During this time, enslaved Africans and African Americans were subjected to unimaginable cruelty, and their skin was harvested after death or killing to create leather goods.
This practice was particularly prevalent in the Southern United States, where slavery was most prominent. Between 1526 and 1867, over 12 million enslaved people were forcibly brought to the Americas, with several million others dying during the brutal journey. Little were we told that those Blacks who had died in the Middle Passage, whose bodies weren’t discarded into the Atlantic, were preserved to further accomplish the inhumanity and barbarism towards the Black race. They had been turned into “black leather,” a term used to describe the skin of enslaved people tanned and treated to create shoes, belts, saddles, and even book bindings. This shocking practice was not only a manifestation of the dehumanizing nature of slavery but also a lucrative industry that profited from the suffering of others.
The process of making human leather was gruesome, with enslavers harvesting skin and treating it with chemicals and processes similar to those used for animal leather. This practice, known as “the black leather,” started in the Americas, particularly in the Southern United States, where slavery was rampant. The use of human skin was first documented in the early 1830s, and it later gained momentum in the 1840s and 1850s as the demand for exotic leather goods increased. Enslavers would tan and treat the skin of these Black individuals to create various leather products, including book bindings, wallets, belts, saddles, and shoes. This process was widely accepted and even advertised in newspapers and catalogs, with some companies specializing in “negro leather” or “black leather goods.” The use of their skin for leather products was a further dehumanizing act, reducing their bodies to mere materials for consumption.
Companies and individuals involved in human tanning obtained the skin of people through a web of exploitation and violence. Enslaved people who died or were killed on plantations or during transportation were the major victims. They had their skin taken without consent or respect. Indigenous peoples were also targeted, killed, and exploited during colonial expansion, their skin harvested as a byproduct of conquest.
The Negro Leather Company, based in Philadelphia, is a perfect example of the legal organizations involved in this gruesome enterprise. There, they would procure human skin from enslaved people who had died or been killed. On most occasions, they purchased the bodies of these individuals from people who were willing to sell them or from slave owners at high prices. After purchase, they would clean and prepare the skin, removing flesh and fat, and soak it in water or a solution to soften it. The skin would be scraped or dehaired to remove excess hair or tissue before being treated with tanning agents like vegetable or mineral tannins. Once tanned, the skin would be softened and conditioned with oils or waxes to make it supple and workable. The company would then cut and craft the human leather into various products such as book bindings, wallets, or belts. These products would be finished with additional treatments like dyeing, embossing, or applying protective coatings.
Ever heard of the word “anthropodermic bibliopegy”? This is the word for the act of binding books with human skins. On hearing this, I bet the questions going on in the minds of some of you watching out there are: “Is there any such thing? Why would someone make these? What’s in between the book covers used? Whose skin is it? What do they smell like?” However, here are a few examples of books, among several others, that were binded with the skin of enslaved Black individuals:
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A copy of the book Narrative of a 5 Years Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam, authored by John Gabriel Stedman (1796), was binded by the skin of an enslaved African man named Hent.
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A book titled The Poems of Thomas Gray (1798) was bound in the skin of an enslaved person believed to be from the Caribbean.
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The skin of an enslaved woman was used to bind a copy of The History of Jamaica (1774) by Edward Long.
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A book titled A Treatise on the Diseases and Management of Negroes (1795) was bound in the skin of an enslaved person, highlighting the cruel irony of using enslaved people’s skin to discuss their medical treatment.
Although most of the binding companies claimed that they actually used the skin of these individuals in remembrance of the sufferings and sacrifices these individuals made, the majority of them had used it for their own private reasons, earning cash for themselves. This practice was mostly common amongst doctors, since they usually had the fastest way to get cadavers in the 18th and 19th centuries. Some doctors and medical professionals were involved in the use of human skin, particularly Blacks, for leather products, including book binding. Through various means, they supplied skin from deceased Black patients, often without seeking the consent of the person’s families.
These whites did not only use the bodies of their enslaved Blacks for leather, but also the skins of Black executed prisoners were not left out. They would bind their own books and manuscripts in tanned human skin, seeing it as a rare and exotic material. These evil white entrepreneurs did even advertise their services, offering to bind books in “negro skins,” and were never out of customers flocking in their numbers. These medical personnel saw the skin of Blacks as a commodity rather than treating it with dignity and respect. They felt that Blacks were in no way different from animals, so they ought to be treated as such. This practice was a reflection of the dehumanizing attitudes prevalent during the time, particularly towards marginalized groups. The involvement of medical professionals in this practice is a disturbing aspect of medical history.
According to a report from the Philadelphia paper called The Mercury, an incredible report was released on March 17, 1888. It recounts the author’s interaction with a man who proudly wore some shoes crafted from Negro skin. The writer lists his acquaintance with various people who had Negro skin cigarette cases, slippers, and matchbook covers, suggesting that he was either taking liberties or ran in some deeply troubling circles.
“I remember that two or three years ago, I incidentally referred to a prominent physician of this city wearing shoes made from the skin of negroes,” the writer stated. “He still adhered to that custom, insisting that the tanned hide of an African makes the most enduring and the most pliable leather known to man. He obtains the skins from the bodies of negroes which have been dissected in one of our big medical colleges. According to him, the best leather is obtained from the thighs. The soles are formed by placing several layers of leather together. The skin is prepared by a Tanner at Waldorf, 16 miles from Reading. The shoes are fashioned by a French shoemaker of this city who knows nothing of the true character of the leather but who often wonders at its exquisite smoothness and says that it excels the finest French calf skin.”
“The doctor’s shoes always exhibit a peculiarly rich illustriousness in their blackness. He assures me that they never hurt his feet. The new pair he was using when I last saw him emitted no creaking sound and appeared as comfortable as though they had been worn for a month. Their predecessors, he told me, had been in constant use for 8 months.”
“He obtains the skins from the bodies of negroes which have been dissected in one of our big medical colleges. The best leather is obtained from the thighs. The soles are formed by placing several layers of leather together. Do not for a moment think that this doctor presents an exceptional case of one who puts human skin to practical use. Medical students frequently display a great variety of articles in which the skin or bones of some dissected mortal has been gruesomely utilized, and in bursts of generosity, they sometimes present these to their friends who prize them highly.”
“One of the duded-up dudes in town carries a match safe covered with a portion of the skin of a beautiful young woman who was found drowned in the Delaware River. It still retains its natural color. Another young man with whom I am acquainted carries a cigar case made of negro skin—a ghastly skull and crossbones appearing on one side in relief.”
Thus said the writer in the report. But what does this say about our society when human skin is used as a commodity? Can this doctor truly call himself civilized when he wears the skin of another human being, whether it be Black or brown or red? What is the true cost of fashion when it comes at the expense of human dignity? What kind of world do we live in where the skin of the deceased is used to make fashion accessories?
But could doctors be the only ones involved in this? Definitely not. The American Bookbinders Company, based in New York, also used the skin of Blacks, which they called “the Negro skin,” for leather bookbindings. They would procure skin from various sources, clean and prepare it, and then tan it using traditional bookbinding techniques. The tanned skin would be softened and conditioned before being cut and crafted into high-end book bindings.
On so many occasions, the skins of enslaved Black individuals have been used for leather binding, Nanny’s case being a perfect example of this. Nanny, an enslaved woman from the Afro-Caribbean, lived a life marked by hardship and resilience. She toiled on a Jamaican plantation, subjected to the whims of her cruel owners. After her passing, her body was desecrated, and her skin was removed and tanned. The plantation owner, a collector of rare books, sought to bind a volume in human skin. He chose Nanny’s skin, seeing it as a morbid trophy. The bookbinder worked diligently, transforming her skin into a gruesome cover. Nanny’s skin now encased a book, a constant reminder of the brutality she endured. Her story, however, didn’t end there. The book passed hands, eventually finding its way to a library where it remained as a haunting testament to the transatlantic slave trade’s atrocities. Years later, a researcher stumbled upon the book, discovering Nanny’s story. Her legacy, once reduced to a mere commodity, was finally acknowledged. Nanny’s story serves as a poignant reminder of the enslaved people’s struggles and the inhumane practices of the past.
Amongst others, here are a few enslavers who used the skin of their slaves for leather products:
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Edward Long. Edward Long was a British colonial administrator and slave owner in Jamaica. He served as a judge and member of the Jamaican assembly but was also known for his cruel treatment of enslaved people. Edward Long, an 18th-century British historian, is said to have used the skin of an enslaved person for leather products. This disturbing practice was a manifestation of the brutal and dehumanizing nature of slavery. Long, who served as a judge in Jamaica, wrote about the supposed inferiority of enslaved people in his book, The History of Jamaica. He claimed that they were naturally inferior to Europeans and justified their enslavement. The use of an enslaved person’s skin for leather products was a twisted display of power and control. It symbolized the enslaver’s ability to reduce a human being to mere material, stripping them of their dignity and humanity. This practice also highlights the commodification of enslaved people’s bodies, which were treated as nothing more than raw materials for exploitation. The use of their skin for leather products was a gruesome extension of this commodification. Edward Long’s actions demonstrate the depths of cruelty and dehumanization inherent in the transatlantic slave trade. His willingness to use an enslaved person’s skin for personal gain reveals a chilling disregard for human life and dignity. It was a way to profit from the bodies of the enslaved individuals even after death.
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Thomas Thistlewood. Thomas Thistlewood, a British plantation owner in 18th-century Jamaica, is known to have used the skin of enslaved people for leather products. This practice was a horrific manifestation of the brutal and dehumanizing nature of slavery. Thistlewood’s diary reveals that he used the skin of enslaved people to make leather goods such as shoes, belts, and even a pouch. He treated their skin as a commodity, devoid of any human significance or dignity. This practice was not only a display of Thistlewood’s cruelty but also a demonstration of his power and control over the enslaved people. By using their skin for his own purposes, he reinforced the notion that they were nothing more than property, devoid of human rights or dignity. Thistlewood’s actions are a stark reminder of the atrocities committed during the transatlantic slave trade. His use of enslaved people’s skin for leather products is a chilling example of the dehumanization and exploitation that defined this period in history.
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William Byrd II. William Byrd II, a Virginia planter and also a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses who served as a colonial official, is documented to have used the skin of enslaved people for leather products in the early 18th century. One such incident occurred in 1709 when Byrd killed one of his slaves, whom he referred to as Niko, during a confrontation. Byrd’s diary entry on June 17, 1709, describes the event: “I had a great dispute with Niko, who was insolent and obstinate. I struck him with my cane, and he died in a few hours.” Byrd then proceeded to have Niko’s skin tanned and made into leather goods, including a pair of gloves and a pouch. This disturbing event highlights the brutal treatment of enslaved people by Byrd and other colonial slave owners. Byrd’s actions demonstrate a complete disregard for human life and dignity as he saw enslaved people as nothing more than commodities to be exploited. Byrd’s use of Niko’s skin for leather products serves as a chilling reminder of the dehumanizing nature of slavery and the violence that accompanied it. Apart from using the skin of his slaves for leather products such as shoes and belts, Byrd’s diaries also reveal a whole lot about his cruel treatment of enslaved people, including physical abuse and sexual exploitation.
George Washington. George Washington was an American planter and slave owner who later became the first president of the United States. George Washington’s case is a disturbing example of the dehumanizing nature of slavery. In the 1750s, a British plantation owner in South Carolina commissioned a leather saddle to be made from the skin of an enslaved African person. The saddle was listed in Williamson’s estate inventory, which included the notation: “a negro skin used to make the saddle.” This notation suggests that the skin was treated as a material commodity rather than as human remains.
Megan Rosenbloom, an American medical librarian and expert on anthropodermic bibliopegy, discusses how books are tested to confirm if they are, in fact, human leather. The use of human skin for leather products is a disturbing reminder of the ways which humans have commodified and exploited each other’s bodies throughout history.
“These books are a tangible representation of the violence and exploitation that people have inflicted on each other,” Rosenbloom said. “They are a reminder that the history of medicine and the history of slavery and exploitation are deeply intertwined. The idea that someone’s skin could be used as a material and then bound into a book is just a really powerful and disturbing metaphor for the way that people’s bodies were treated as commodities.”
Rosenbloom’s statements emphasize the importance of acknowledging the dark history and ethical concerns surrounding anthropodermic bibliopegy and of considering the ongoing impact of colonialism, slavery, and racism on contemporary society.
One of the most notable events surrounding the “black leather” was the 1835 case of a slave named William Johnson, whose skin was harvested after his death and turned into a leather saddle bag. This incident sparked outrage among abolitionists, who saw it as a stark example of the dehumanizing nature of slavery. As the abolitionist movement gained momentum, the use of human leather became a rallying cry against the cruelty of slavery. In 1850, the Fugitive Slave Act was passed, which included provisions that prohibited the use of Black skin for leather goods.
Fast forward to today, and the use of Black skin for leather continues, albeit in a different form. Companies like Human Leather use willing donors’ skin for fashion products, sparking debates about ethics and consent. There’s even a website where you can purchase human leather goods today, although they are closed to new clients due to high demand. And clothing isn’t the only thing that these Black slaves were made of. Ed Gein, an American enslaver, had a huge collection of objects made from human skin, including an armchair, a belt, a wastebasket, and several lampshades.
Meanwhile, innovators like Tina Gorjan propose growing human skin from celebrity DNA, raising questions about the intersection of technology, celebrity culture, and human leather. As lab-grown skin becomes more feasible, we’re forced to confront the potential consequences of human leather, as there are various companies today who still run adverts online for the use of human skin products for leather. These practices are sometimes shrouded in secrecy, and on other occasions, they’re advocated publicly. Most historical accounts and records suggest that the procurement of human skin was linked to the darkest aspects of human history, including slavery, colonialism, racism, and hateful repression.
To close this: The use of the skins of Black slaves for leather is a heinous and inhumane practice that echoes the darkest moments of human history. It is a stark reminder of the ways in which systemic racism and oppression have perpetrated violence and exploitation against Black bodies. But even in the face of such atrocities, we find resilience and strength. We honor the memories of those whose skins were taken without consent by continuing to fight for justice, equality, and humanity. May their stories fuel our determination to create a world where every individual is treated with dignity and respect. Let us strive for a future where the value of Black lives is never again reduced to mere commodities but celebrated as the precious, sacred, and powerful force that they are.
