On May 29th, 1453, the great city of Constantinople, the last stronghold of the Byzantine Empire, fell. From its symbolic ruins emerged a new and powerful state that reshaped the course of history, not only in Asia but throughout Europe: the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans did not merely conquer territories; they also introduced traditions and customs, many of which were unparalleled in other cultures.
One of the most controversial and historically significant practices was the Law of Fratricide, introduced by Sultan Mehmed II, also known as Mehmed the Conqueror. This law required the new Sultan ascending the throne to secure his rule by eliminating potential rivals within his family. While this practice might seem harsh by modern standards, its primary purpose was to prevent succession disputes and ensure the Empire’s stability. The Sultan’s family was a large and influential clan, and multiple contenders to the throne would spark bloody conflicts, threatening the Empire’s unity.
Historical records indicate that 60 princes lost their lives throughout the Ottoman Empire’s history, 37 of whom were reportedly executed under the Law of Fratricide. To preserve the dignity associated with noble lineage, executions were carried out in a manner considered respectful. Spilling royal blood was deemed unacceptable. Members of the Sultan’s family were typically strangled with a silk cord, which was considered less dishonorable than beheading—a form of punishment reserved for criminals in the Empire.
One of the most severe methods of execution associated with the Ottoman Empire was dismemberment. This punishment was inflicted on individuals convicted of serious crimes, such as murder or treason against the Sultan. The condemned were brought to a public square where spectators had gathered to witness the punishment. They were restrained and secured on a specially prepared platform. The executioner used tightly bound ropes around the individual’s waist to create immense internal pressure. With a single precise stroke of a sword, the executioner would sever the body at the waist.
To underscore the seriousness of a crime, the remains of the condemned were disposed of in a symbolic manner. The lower half of the body was discarded, while the upper half was often burned near the execution site. This harsh form of punishment served as a grim reminder of the Empire’s unwavering adherence to its legal codes and its determination to maintain control. Despite its severity, dismemberment was considered a relatively swift form of execution compared to other methods practiced at the time.
The next punishment we cover could last for hours or even days. In the Ottoman Empire, adultery could lead to the death penalty, though it was rare and considered the highest form of punishment. A sentence of stoning required at least four witnesses or a confession. After the trial, the condemned were taken to a public square where women were buried up to their necks and men were either tied or buried up to their waists. This ritual symbolized their separation from society.
Participants in the stoning process were often selected witnesses or members of the crowd who were instructed to use stones of medium size to avoid a quick or overly prolonged death. Such punishments could last for hours or even days before the individual succumbed to injuries. After death, the partially buried body of the individual was sometimes left as a public warning about the consequences of breaking societal norms. Ottoman society was known for its strict laws and severe penalties, reflecting an uncompromising approach to justice. Ordinary citizens participated in acts such as public stoning, seeing them as part of their societal duty.
However, punishment did not always mean death for the condemned. At times, sentences involved severe physical penalties that left individuals suffering for the rest of their lives. For example, a person convicted of treason could be sentenced to permanent blinding, a punishment that left both physical and social scars. Eye gouging was an extremely painful form of punishment carried out in a highly public and demonstrative manner. The procedure was conducted in front of spectators to serve as a warning and discourage acts of treason or rebellion.
The condemned would be restrained by several individuals, one of whom firmly immobilized their heads to prevent any movement. The executioner, often equipped with metal tongs or iron rods—sometimes heated in fire—would carry out the sentence by pressing the tools against the convict’s eyes. This could result in permanent blindness or, in some cases, the complete destruction of the eye sockets. This punishment permanently blinded the individual, rendering their subsequent life incomplete and full of hardship. Furthermore, such individuals became living reminders of the severe consequences for acts against the state, reinforcing the authority of the Ottoman rulers.
Executions were carried out by executioners known for their cold-blooded efficiency. These men, known as Bostangi, were tall and strong, dressed in distinctive uniforms of red caps, muslin trousers, and deep-cut shirts, performing their duties without hesitation. The same executioners also carried out other grim sentences, such as sewing condemned women into heavy sacks and throwing them into the Bosphorus. One infamous case involved Sultan Ibrahim I, nicknamed “Ibrahim the Mad,” who reportedly ordered the execution of 280 women from his harem to make room for new members.
The approach of the Bostangi, clad in their traditional uniform, often signified the inevitability of punishment for many in the Empire. Their loyalty to the Sultan extended to carrying out even the most unconventional executions, including launching condemned individuals from catapults to their deaths. This type of execution was extremely rare due to its extraordinary nature. A person sentenced to this kind of death would have committed a grave crime, such as espionage. In such cases, the criminal could simply be thrown from a great height, resulting in an instant death from the severe impact with the ground.
However, the rulers of the Empire devised a more sophisticated and demonstrative method of execution based on the simple act of throwing someone off a cliff. The condemned person was tied or secured to a catapult or a large siege weapon. Then, like a projectile, the individual was launched with immense force over a great distance, where they would either crash to the ground or into water, where they would subsequently drown. This form of execution completely dehumanized the individual, reducing them to nothing more than an object to be treated as desired, underscoring the severity of crimes such as espionage against the state.
Executions of the elite in the Ottoman Empire featured a unique and unusual tradition that stood out in history: a race between the Chief Executioner and the condemned official. The outcome of this race determined whether the official would face death or exile. The process for sentencing and executing ordinary officials was relatively straightforward. When an official was summoned to the Sultan’s Palace, it signified a pivotal moment, one that often determined their fate.
Once inside, they waited nervously, knowing their judgment was near. After some time, they were handed a cup of sherbet, a cool, pleasant beverage. If the cup was white, it was a sign of reprieve. However, a red cup signified a death sentence. Following the serving of the red cup, the sentence was carried out without delay. Several warriors from the regular Ottoman troops, known as the Janissaries, escorted the official to the site of execution.
The Grand Vizier, the Sultan’s most trusted minister, was the only individual with a chance to escape execution after receiving the red cup. In such cases, a life-or-death race would commence, giving the condemned Vizier one final opportunity to avoid execution. As soon as the Vizier finished the drink, he was allowed to run. His objective was to cover a distance of 900 feet to reach the Fish Market Gate on the southern side of the palace complex, the designated execution site.
The opponent in this race was the Bostangi. If the deposed Vizier reached the gate before the Bostangi, his punishment would be reduced to exile. However, if the gardener arrived first, the Vizier would be executed by decapitation, with his body disposed of in the sea. Historical records reveal that this extraordinary tradition of fatal races persisted until the early 19th century. The last documented case was in November 1822, when Grand Vizier Hacı Salih Pasha saved his life by winning the race. After this event, the practice was discontinued.
Punishments of this nature were often reserved for officials guilty of betrayal or corruption. But what awaited those who committed minor offenses, such as drunkenness or other petty misconduct? The Ottoman Empire used a disciplinary punishment called Falaka, involving strikes to the soles of the feet with a wooden rod. Though it seemed mild, this method was extremely painful due to the numerous nerve endings in the feet.
The offender would lie on the ground with their feet tied to a crossbar held by two individuals. The rod was rotated to tighten the rope and secure the soles, after which the exposed feet were whipped. Occasionally, water was poured on the soles to intensify the pain. Although they often broke during the process, Falaka was even applied to children in Ottoman schools as punishment for disobedience, with teachers administering the strikes while classmates helped hold the rod.
For ordinary citizens, however, the consequences of crimes such as theft were also severe, including limb amputation. The punishment varied depending on the scale of the theft. If a person was caught stealing something minor, they were often sentenced to forced labor on galleys, where they worked as rowers for extended periods. This labor was extremely grueling, with high mortality rates due to physical exhaustion and disease.
However, in cases where the thief could immediately compensate the victim for the loss, they might receive a pardon. Matters were far worse for those accused of more serious theft, such as stealing a horse. For such offenses, the punishment often involved the amputation of a hand. While full limb amputation was not practiced, the removal of the hand significantly hindered the individual’s ability to perform daily tasks and served as a lasting mark of their crime.
On the streets, when citizens encountered someone with an amputated hand, it was evident why the punishment had been carried out. In rarer cases, a thief’s foot might be amputated instead of a hand, or even both hands and a foot. The procedure was carried out in public as a deterrence to others. The condemned person was ordered to place the limb on a prepared block. If they resisted, they were restrained, and the executioner swiftly carried out the amputation using a sword or axe.
However, even such a harsh punishment could be seen as less severe compared to the sentence of emasculation. Unlike standard castration, emasculation involved the removal of all male genitalia and was reserved for men convicted of serious crimes against the state or severe sexual offenses. The consequences of emasculation were devastating, both physically and socially. The procedure was excruciatingly painful and often fatal. Survivors faced severe hormonal changes leading to depression and were ostracized due to their inability to have children or engage in normal social roles.
Harsh punishments like these, combined with public executions, were used to instill obedience in citizens. One symbol of the Empire’s severity was the Executioner’s Fountain, where executioners washed their hands after beheadings. During Sultan Selim I’s eight-year reign, this fountain saw frequent use, with 30,000 executions and seven Grand Viziers meeting their end.
